Vocabulary and discourse · Lesson 10

Discourse linkers: show the relationship, then build the argument

A linker is a small instruction to the listener or reader. It can announce a reason, turn toward a contrast, introduce evidence, or show that a conclusion follows. The linker cannot create logic that is missing. First decide how two ideas are related. Then choose a structure, punctuation pattern, and level of formality that make that relationship easy to follow.

60–70 min corereason · result · contrast · exampleclause · phrase · punctuation · register15–20 min listening and retrieval

NoticeRecover the relationship between ideas before naming a linker.

BuildChoose clause, phrase, and sentence-connector patterns accurately.

TestCheck whether the evidence really supports the connection.

CommunicateDeliver and defend a connected recommendation.

Can-do: By the end, you can connect ideas through addition, contrast, concession, reason, result, example, clarification, sequence, and conclusion; choose between a conjunction, a dependent-clause linker, a phrase linker, and a sentence connector; punctuate high-value patterns; place also naturally; distinguish neutral conversation from more formal proposal language; make important relationships audible through chunking and stress; reject a connector when the logic is unsupported; and give a 90-second fictional recommendation that another person can reconstruct and challenge.

Two-minute retrieval

Reactivate familiar connections

1Maya took a taxi .

2The daytime bus is cheaper, .

3The tutor wants a process with comparison before judgment: .

4The committee studied the evidence and then .

Notice the instructions inside a connected recommendation

Fictional Riverbend evening-access proposal

Disconnected notes: Evening classes end at 9:30. The last direct bus leaves at 9:20. Some learners leave class early. A shuttle would cost money. A trial could test demand. The committee recommends a trial.

Connected version: Some learners leave class early because the last direct bus leaves before evening classes end. However, a permanent shuttle would require a large commitment. For example, the center would need to pay for a vehicle, a driver, and accessible boarding. Although the initial survey is limited, it identifies a transport concern worth testing. Therefore, the committee recommends a 12-week trial rather than a permanent service.

Which word introduces the cause of early departure?
Which connector turns from the access problem to a cost concern?
Which expression introduces concrete parts of the cost?
Which linker admits a limitation before preserving the main point?
Which connector presents the recommendation as a result of the preceding reasoning?

Discovery check: name what each linker tells the listener

1The sentence uses to explain why some learners leave early.

2The writer uses to turn toward the cost concern.

3The list of vehicle, driver, and boarding costs begins with .

4The writer uses to concede that the survey is limited.

5The final recommendation begins with .

Get to the root: decide the relationship before the linker

Linkers make relationships explicit. They do not make unrelated ideas logical, and they do not replace evidence. Before choosing a word, state the relationship in plain language: this is another reason, this conflicts with the expectation, this cause produced that result, or this specific case illustrates the general claim. Then choose a pattern that fits the grammar and the situation.

communicative job	high-value B1 choices	relationship
addition	and · also · too · in addition · moreover	adds a new supporting point
contrast	but · however · while · whereas · though	shows a meaningful difference or changed direction
concession	although · even though · despite · in spite of	admits one fact while maintaining another point
reason	because · because of	introduces a cause or explanation
result	so · therefore · as a result	introduces a consequence supported by the cause
example or clarification	for example · such as · in other words	illustrates a claim or restates it more clearly
sequence or conclusion	first · next · meanwhile · finally · overall · in conclusion	organizes stages or closes the complete line of thought

Important boundary: More linkers do not automatically create better writing or speaking. Repeat a noun, use a pronoun, or begin a clear new sentence when the relationship is already obvious. A connector should reduce the listener’s work, not decorate every sentence.

Classify the relationship before choosing wording

1The first study room is quiet. The second supporting point is that it has reliable internet. This relationship is .

2The train is cheaper. The bus, by comparison, is faster. This relationship is .

3The survey is small. The committee still believes a trial is useful. Admitting the first fact while maintaining the second is .

4The class moved online. The instructor was sick and could not travel. The second idea supplies the .

5The road flooded overnight. Morning buses were canceled. The cancellation is the .

6The center offers practical support. Free résumé reviews illustrate that general claim. Their relationship is .

Choose the structure: clause, phrase, or new sentence

structure	safe pattern	example
coordinating conjunction	clause , but / so clause	The route is longer, but it is more reliable.
dependent clause	because / although + subject + verb	Although the route is longer, it is more reliable.
preposition phrase	because of / despite + noun or -ing form	Despite the longer route, the bus arrives earlier.
sentence connector	Sentence. However / Therefore / For example, sentence.	The route is longer. However, it is more reliable.

When the dependent clause comes first, a comma normally separates it from the main clause: Because the last bus leaves early, some learners miss the final activity. When the reason comes second, the comma is normally unnecessary: Some learners leave early because the last bus leaves at 9:20. For a B1 writer, a period before however or therefore is a clear, dependable choice. Formal edited writing can also use a semicolon before the connector.

Complete the exact grammatical frame

1Use because before a full clause: Some learners leave early .

2Use because of before a noun phrase: Attendance may be affected .

3Begin with a concession clause containing a subject and verb: , the survey identified a concern.

4Begin with a concession phrase rather than a clause: , the survey identified a concern.

5Keep the contrast inside one sentence after a comma: The route costs more, .

6Begin a new sentence with a punctuated connector: The route costs more. .

Keep cause, result, and concession in one complete frame

Standard edited English normally uses one frame for each relationship. Choose because or so, not both in the same cause-result pair: Because the bus was late, we took a taxi. Or: The bus was late, so we took a taxi. Choose although or but, not both: Although it costs more, it saves time. Or: It costs more, but it saves time.

Even though often makes the concession feel stronger than although. Despite and in spite of express a similar relationship, but they take a noun phrase or an -ing form: Despite costing more, the direct route remains popular.

Choose the requested relationship and sentence shape

1Use a fronted reason clause, then a main clause: .

2Put the cause first and join the result with so inside one sentence: .

3Put the result in a new sentence beginning with a connector: .

4Concede the full clause the shuttle costs more: .

5Concede the noun phrase the additional cost: .

Place addition, contrast, examples, and conclusions naturally

choice	position and setting	natural model
also	usually before a main verb; after be; after the first auxiliary	It also serves Oak Street. It is also accessible. It can also run later.
too	often at the end in neutral conversation	The later route serves Oak Street, too.
in addition / moreover	sentence connectors; moreover is more formal and less common in relaxed speech	The route is direct. In addition, it runs later.
though	often at the end in conversation to add a softer contrast	The express bus is faster. It costs more, though.
for example / such as	for example can introduce a sentence; such as introduces examples inside a noun phrase	Some costs increased. For example, fuel rose 8%. Costs such as fuel and insurance increased.
overall / in conclusion	closes the whole discussion; it does not mean the same as a logical result	Overall, a limited trial is the most defensible next step.

Match wording to position, channel, and purpose

1Put also before the main verb: The proposed shuttle .

2Put also after be: The proposed vehicle .

3Add a second supporting detail in a formal written proposal: .

4Add a relaxed spoken contrast after admitting the express bus costs more: .

5Illustrate the survey concern with one exact finding: .

6Close the complete comparison without pretending the last sentence is a physical consequence: .

Audit the logic before polishing the sentence

Ask five questions: Are both ideas clear? What exact relationship joins them? Does the first idea actually support the second? Is the connector appropriate for the channel and tone? Does the punctuation match the structure? If the evidence is weak, change the claim or add evidence. Do not hide the gap behind therefore.

A connector cannot rescue a weak relationship

Unsupported: The trial begins Monday. Therefore, every participant will find a job. The date does not prove the employment outcome.

Supported and limited: The trial begins Monday. Therefore, the center can start collecting attendance and feedback next week. The planned start supports the stated next action.

Repetition disguised as addition: The route is inexpensive. Moreover, it does not cost much. The second sentence restates the first without adding support.

Example mismatch: Several transport options run after 10:00. For example, the library closes at 8:00. The library schedule does not illustrate the transport claim.

Diagnose the relationship, not only the grammar

1Twenty people attended one workshop. Therefore, the course permanently improved all participants’ careers. This is an .

2The driver reported a mechanical problem. As a result, the 9:35 departure was canceled. With the report confirmed, this is a .

3The shuttle is affordable. Moreover, its price is not high. This is .

4Several services could improve evening access. For example, an on-demand shuttle could connect the center to the late train. This is a .

5The fixed route is cheaper, whereas the on-demand service reaches more neighborhoods. This is an .

Sound natural: make the relationship audible

Sentence connectors often form a short opening chunk. Pause after the connector, then give the main information its strongest stress: howEVer, / the LAST bus leaves at NINE twenty. For exAMple, / forty-SEVen respondents left EARly. As a reSULT, / the committee proposed a TRIAL. The pause helps the listener prepare for the relationship; it is not a full stop that disconnects the connector from its sentence.

Conjunctions usually stay inside the clause rhythm. In relaxed U.S. speech, and can reduce toward /ən/ and because often sounds like /bɪˈkəz/: It is CHEAPer / ən it runs LATEr. They left EARly / because the LAST bus was at NINE twenty. Do not erase the key relationship word when clarity depends on it.

Final though often carries a small separate beat and a continuing contrast: It costs MORE. / It is FASter, though. In a correction, the connector itself can receive stronger stress: I agree with the GOAL. howEVer, / the current plan is too EXPENsive.

Tutor-read listening: recover the relationship from rhythm and wording

The tutor reads each line once naturally and once with the target chunking emphasized. The learner answers before rereading the written line.

1. Clip 1. What does the chunking do?

2. Clip 2. What happened to and?

3. Clip 3. Why is however prominent?

4. Clip 4. What is the job of final though?

5. Clip 5. What stays the same?

Read a complete proposal before judging its conclusion

Fictional Riverbend evening-access file

Current situation: Evening workshops end at 9:30, but the last direct bus leaves at 9:20. In an optional survey, 120 of 190 registered learners responded. Forty-seven respondents said they had left at least one workshop early during the previous month because of transport timing.

Proposed trial: Therefore, the access committee proposes a 12-week shuttle trial with departures at 9:35 and 10:15. The quoted total is $7,200. Moreover, the contract requires a wheelchair-accessible vehicle, a clearly marked pickup point, and driver contact information.

Limits and concerns: However, the survey records self-reports from respondents, not observed behavior from all 190 learners. It does not show how many people would use the shuttle. For example, some respondents may already carpool or use a different bus. Although the responses identify a timing concern, they do not prove that the trial will increase attendance or improve later employment outcomes.

Recommendation: Overall, the committee recommends a limited trial rather than a permanent service. During the trial, the center should record ridership, on-time departures, accessibility problems, cost per trip, and anonymous reports of leaving early. At week 12, the committee can compare those measures with the previous 12 weeks and decide whether to continue, revise, or stop the service.

Evidence check: reconstruct the connected argument

1. What timing contrast motivates the proposal?

2. What does Therefore do in the proposed-trial paragraph?

3. Which supporting detail is added with Moreover?

4. Which sentence accurately states the survey’s evidence limit?

5. Which summary preserves the logic of the overall recommendation?

Build a concession and a measured conclusion

Builder 1: concede without abandoning the evidence

Build the complete sentence.

Builder 2: state a supported result

Build the complete sentence.

Notice and repair the linker frame

Repair 1: remove the double contrast

Tap the extra linker.

Repair 2: distinguish a clause from a noun phrase

Tap the phrase with the wrong structure.

Repair 3: punctuate the sentence connector

Tap the connector that cannot follow only a comma in this sentence.

Play and practice

Games and a short reading that recycle this lesson. Use them as a warm-up, a fast finisher, or homework. Each one checks itself.

Read

A case for later library hours

Read once for meaning. Then read again and do the tasks below.

Committee note153 wordsAbout 1 min

The Eastside Library closes at 7:00 p.m. on weekdays. However, many residents finish work after 6:30. A short survey found that 85 of 140 visitors would use the library later in the evening. Therefore, the staff committee proposes opening until 9:00 p.m. on Tuesdays and Thursdays.

Because the study rooms are often full in the afternoon, later hours could reduce crowding. Moreover, the community college next door has evening classes, so students could study between classes.

Although the survey is small, it shows a clear need. The extra hours would cost about $9,000 for one year, mainly for staff time. The committee also wants a security guard on duty after dark, and that would add to the cost.

Overall, the committee recommends a six-month trial. The staff will count visitors after 7:00 p.m. during the trial and ask them for feedback. The library board can then decide whether to keep the new hours.

Find it

Tap the 6 linkers that begin a sentence. Skip linkers inside a sentence, such as and, but, and so.

Check your understanding

1. Why does the committee want later hours?

2. What does the sentence that begins with Although admit?

3. What does the committee recommend?

Crossword

Linkers in context

Click a clue or a square, then type. Press Check when you finish.

Across

Down

Sort it

What relationship does it signal?

Tap a word, then tap the box it belongs in. Press Check when the tray is empty.

Match up

Finish the frame

Tap a start on the left, then the only finish that completes it correctly. Check the structure: full clause, noun phrase, or new sentence.

Start

Finish

Practice a connected position without disclosing private information

You never need to discuss a real employer, commute, disability, financial problem, immigration matter, school record, family conflict, or unsafe travel experience. Use Riverbend, another tutor-created community proposal, or an invented choice. The purpose is discourse control, not evaluation of your private circumstances.

Relationship cards: The tutor says addition, contrast, concession, reason, result, example, clarification, sequence, or conclusion. Give one sentence pair from the fictional file and state why the relationship fits.

Register switch: Give a relaxed spoken version with but, too, or final though. Then give a neutral-formal written version with however, in addition, or overall. Keep the relationship and evidence unchanged.

Evidence challenge: Your partner says Therefore before an unsupported conclusion. Ask what evidence connects the ideas, then reformulate the claim with a narrower result or a clear limitation.

One-minute edit: Take six disconnected notes. Group related ideas, remove one unnecessary linker, add one missing relationship, and explain each remaining choice.

Final production and check

Final production: deliver and defend a 90-second fictional recommendation

Use the Riverbend file or another tutor-supplied proposal. State the issue and desired decision. Give two reasons, add one different supporting point, and illustrate one claim with a relevant example. Contrast two options. Concede one real limitation without abandoning the entire argument. Present one result that the evidence actually supports. Close with a measured recommendation. Use at least one conjunction, one dependent-clause linker, and one sentence connector. After your partner challenges a weak connection, clarify or reformulate it instead of adding a decorative connector.

Success criteria: Can the listener label each relationship, recover the evidence behind the conclusion, hear the connector chunks, identify the register, and explain the final action without finding a double linker, comma splice, irrelevant example, repeated point, or unsupported result?

Final check: defend every connection

1. Which sentence presents the bus timing as the cause and early departure as its result?

2. Which version uses however as a sentence connector correctly?

3. Which pair preserves the clause-versus-phrase distinction?

4. Which statement describes addition linkers accurately?

5. Which conclusion stays within the Riverbend evidence?

6. How can a speaker make However, the last bus leaves at 9:20 easy to follow?

Reflect: can the listener reconstruct the relationship?

Explain your discourse decisions

Complete these ideas aloud: I choose a linker after... Because differs from because of because... Although differs from despite because... However differs from but in... Moreover may sound different from also because... For example succeeds only when... Therefore is misleading when... A pause after however helps because...

Then take one paragraph from your final recommendation. Label each relationship, underline the evidence supporting it, circle every connector, and remove any connector that does not reduce the listener’s work.

Return tomorrow for the five-item retrieval check before rereading the lesson.

Next-day retrieval

Return without rereading the page. Recover the relationship, grammatical frame, punctuation, register, and evidence boundary from new contextual cues.

Five delayed checks

1. What should happen before you choose a discourse linker?

2. Which pair preserves the reason structures?

3. Which version gives however the dependable B1 punctuation pattern?

4. Which version is suitable for adding a formal supporting point?

5. A small optional survey reports a recurring timing problem but measures no later outcomes. Which conclusion is defensible?